Development of science

 Online assignment 

Development of science in Ancient Medieval and Modern Periods 

INTRODUCTION

     Science is one of the most important aspects of human life. It is a broad field which studies various subjects from nature to machines. Science has led to better understanding of the world and is making human life much better. As man's curiosity and needs grew, his knowledge also grew. Science thus began from simple inventions and later developed into complex theories.

 SCIENCE

          Science has given solutions of many problems of man. It is a process to understand natural phenomena. Scientific knowledge is continuously increasing. To know what qualifies a certain study as a science we need to understand the meaning and characteristics of science

Meaning

          The word science is derived from the word scientia meaning knowledge. Thus any body of knowledge can be termed as science. It is a systematic study of knowledge based on reasoning, observation and experimentation. It can be defined as, an organized knowledge especially when obtained by observation and testing of facts about the physical world, natural laws and society.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE

      Science as a body of knowledge developed along with man's understanding of nature. All things that man did for survival are a part of the story of growth of science. Development of science can be studied in the following stages:

Development of Science in the Ancient cultures:

             Ancient period of history of man dates back to more than one million years ago. The ancient man was completely dependent on nature for survival. He observed nature and devised simple ways to explain it. He made several attempts at experimenting on the basis of his observation.

a) Stone age

            During the early Stone Age, man was completely dependent on what was available in nature. He experimented with resources for food, shelter and clothing. Simple tools of stone, the discovery of fire, clothes of animal skin are some of the discoveries he made using his knowledge of nature. He also formed simple social and religious institutions. Though writing was not known to him, the various cave paintings belonging to this period discovered all over the world show his inclination towards culture. These painting might have also been means of communication. When man experimented with creating his own resources by manipulating nature, the New Stone Age began. This shows that by this time he had accumulated lots of knowledge of nature. In the absence of writing, this knowledge was communicated orally through generations. By understanding season cycle and use of water he invented agriculture around 9000 years ago. He also domesticated animals. During this stage man's relationship with nature changed. He became less dependent on nature.

b) Civilization stage

      In around 3500 BC, man developed civilization. A new urban society in which agriculture was developed, writing was invented, trade and commerce flourished. Development of writing is one of the biggest milestones of human kind history. It enabled man to store knowledge. Early form of writing was in symbols. Several inscriptions from the Egyptian and Mesopotamian (ancient Iraq) civilizations give us knowledge about life during that period. Arts and science was developing during these civilizations. The Sumerians of Iraq have contributed to modern science with their numerical data. For e. g. the number system based on 60 is basis for 360 degree circle. Astronomical periods identified by them are still widely used in lunar calendars. Babylonian astronomy was the first attempt at refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena. Ancient Egypt made significant developments in astronomy, medicine and mathematics.

Development of Science in the classical age:

            The Classical age is a period spanning over 1000 years from the 8th century BC to around 6th Century AD. It is the age of cultural advancement of the Greek and Roman civilizations. Philosophers during this period developed such knowledge in science that became basic foundations for later scientific study. 

          

Development of Science in the Middle Ages:

             The period between the classical ages and European Renaissance is referred to as the Middle Ages. It marked both the decline of scientific advancement and also later its revival. The middle ages are studied in three parts; early, high and later. Early Middle ages (476-1000 AD)Following the decline of Roman Empire, economic and cultural deterioration began in Europe. The knowledge of Greek declined, and scholars had limited original work to study from. 

           By the early 5th century Christianity had spread in Europe on a large scale. There was rise of monasticism. Surviving manuscripts of Roman classics were copied in monasteries. These served as sources for study to philosophers. However, very less original work was produced. By the 6th century monasteries became centers of teaching and learning. 

           

High Middle Ages ( 1000-1300 A.D.)

      From the 11th century onwards, innovation again got impetus. There were new scientific discoveries. The European scholars during this period were influenced not only by classic Greek works but also by Arabic texts. They translated these ancient classics into Latin and started improving the knowledge base. Inventions such as the windmills and magnetic compassadvanced agriculture and trade. The introduction of papermaking by the Chinese transformed the way knowledge was stored and circulated.

 During this period many new universities were established. This gave institutional support and encouragement to scientific studies. 

Late middle ages (1300-1450 A.D.)

       The most important development during this period was the separation of science from theology and philosophy. Scientific works of the Byzantine and Islamic empire influenced the Europeans during this period. Science was no more joined with religious understanding. The most lasting and strong foundation theories were given by William Occam (14th century). Today it is known as Occam„s razor. Its simple explanation means “when you Have two competing theories that make exactly the same predictions, the simpler one is the better”. It was later on utilized by Newton and Einstein.

Development in the Renaissance (1450- 1650)

         The modern period in European history was ushered in the 15th century by the Renaissance. The term renaissance means rebirth in Italian. It was a cultural movement that brought new thought and discoveries. After the rise of the Ottoman Empire in the mid 15th century, scholars from Turkey moved to Europe with ancient and medieval classics. The rediscovery of classics by the Europeans led to the reintroduction of reason and emphasis on human emotions and ideas. The invention of printing press by Johan Gutenberg in 1436, ideas spread rapidly. With its centre in Italy, Renaissance gradually spread towards north Europe by the 16th century.

         The scholars and philosophers during this period rejected medieval idea of god being the central idea for nature and art. They developed new theories which rejected the classical theories.

        Nicolas Copernicus developed a more detailed and accurate heliocentric theory of the planetary system. His explaining the revolution of earth and other heavenly bodies revolving around the sun was banned by the church, since it believed in the geocentric theory. He also made theoretical studies in mathematics.

           Johan Kepler was a strong follower of Copernicus„s theory. He studied it and added the fact that planets revolve around the sun in ellipse and not complete circles. His contribution is the famous Three Laws of planetary motion.

       Galileo Galilee was the man of true renaissance spirit. He was not only an astronomer, but also a physicist, mathematician and philosopher. His first scientific discovery was the law of pendulum. He later successfully developed several devices like magnet, compass, thermometer, microscope etc. His breakthrough discovery was however, the use of telescope for observation of space. He is known as the father of Modern physics as he developed the law of falling bodies.

        Renaissance was thus a period of new ideas and growth of scientific knowledge.

The Age of reason and enlightenment (1650-1800)

      The new ideas of reason and independent understanding of nature were carried forward strongly in the late 17th century. Scholars emphasized the right of individuals to think and express themselves freely. During Renaissance the church opposed scientific theories of Copernicus and Galileo. Such opposition of church and domination of the monarchy was rejected during this period. This led to the scientific revolution.

            The Age of Enlightenment succeeding the Age of Reason was the period of further scientific advancement. Reason was to be the basis of authority and belief. Science was looked as a study of nature with the aim of developing humanity and achieving advanced progress. Intellectuals or Philosophers based their arguments against any authority on the basis of logic. Thus in social and political field also there was rejection of tyranny and tradition.

            John Locke is considered as the father of Classical Liberalism. Locke argued that human nature was changeable and that knowledge was gained through accumulated experience rather than by accessing some sort of outside truth. His thoughts greatly influenced political philosophy all over the world.

CONCLUSION 

            Science is essential not only for the development of knowledge, but also as a basis for the development of the technology and national innovation  systems for economic growth.

                 Scientific  knowledge allows us to develop new technologies, solve practical problems and make informed decisions - both individually and collectively. Because its products are also useful, the process of science is intertwined with those application : New scientific knowledge may lead to new applications.